Biological Poisons

Lindsay Pasquale

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Biological Poisons

Poisons are harmful to living organisms. The famous saying “the dose makes the poison” relates to this very well because we are able to handle a certain amount of a substance but there is a point to where it becomes poisonous. That’s why we have standards by Occupational Safety and Health (OSHA) agency or Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), if a company is working with a poisonous substance there is a standard of how much you are able to be exposed before it becomes harmful. Some poisons are manufactured by humans, others such as biological poisons are produced by bacteria, fungi, protists, plants, and animals.

There are three different ways to get exposed by poisons; absorption through the skin, inhalation into the lungs, and ingestion in the gut. Our skin has an important job of forming a barrier against many poisons, but it provides a route of entry for liquids. Inhalation provides a route of entry into the bloodstream for volatile molecules. There are some enzymes and acids that enable some ingestion poisons from entering. After exposure, most poisons toxic effects come quickly.

Treatment is available but not guaranteed for every poison. Antidotes is a common treatment available for a few poisons. Treatment focuses on removing the poison from the body and maintain respiration and circulation until the effects are reduced as the compound excretes over time.

The major agricultural chemicals are pesticides, which include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, fumigants and rodenticides. Herbicides is a chemical which is commonly used to kill plants. The potential of this chemical to produce toxicity in humans is low. A high dose of this can cause muscular and neurological symptoms. Warfarin is an anticoagulant drug used as a rodent poison. Originally, it was a drug to treat thromboembolism, a disease caused by blood clots. The restriction caused by blood clotting by warfarin can lead to internal bleeding. Since it can induce internal bleeding, it is also used as rodenticide. Alar, is used as a plant growth regulator to improve the appearance and shelf life of apples. But the use of alar has decreased because of the harms it may cause. There were concerns that it may cause tumors in children who eat the apples.

General air pollutants include sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide. Sulfur dioxide is an acidic pollutant that irritates the respiratory tract. If it irritates the throat, it will cause a harsh cough and may result in a shortness of breath, lung edema, or pneumonia. Nitrogen oxides are oxidizing pollutants; it can also cause respiratory irritation. It tends to be more irritant to the lung rather than the upper respiratory tract. Lastly, carbon monoxide is an asphyxiating pollutant that binds to hemoglobin more strongly that oxygen. Tissues lack oxygen which result in many toxic effects. The human brain is especially sensitive to lack of oxygen, in result most of the symptoms are neurological. Asphyxiation is the term that describes lack of oxygen, which is what carbon monoxide is. 

http://www.biologyreference.com/Ph-Po/Poisons.html

https://www.britannica.com/science/poison-biochemistry/Types-of-poison

Environmental Pollutants

Lindsay Pasquale

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Environmental Pollutants

Pollution is the contamination to the natural environment that can have harmful effects. Environmental pollutants have become a real problem once the industrial revolution took off. Environmental pollution happens when the environment cannot process or neutralize harmful by products created by humans, poisonous gas emissions for example. This is extremely important because of the negative effects pollutants has on the earth like clean air and clean water.

Technology facilitated by businesses has become one of the main causes of deterioration of natural resources. Think of when you are driving, the semi-truck in front of you has black smoke pouring out of it pipes. You look to your right and see smoke stacks with huge smoke clouds above them, and a chemical plant is right next to the river. Does that worry anyone these days? We see environmental pollutants in front of our eyes every day. Business take a part in this by division of labor, cheaper production cost, overproduction, overconsumption, over pollution.

Pollution is increasing every year at a high rate, the five basic types of pollution is air, water, soil, noise, and light. Air is said to be the most harmful type of pollution in our environment. China is suffering bad from bad air quality due to coal combustion and other factors. They are hardly able to see in front of them, it looks like a constant area of smoke or fog. Air pollution can be caused by multiple sources; trucks, buses, cars, trains, Sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, or nitrogen oxides. It can be a leading factor in lung cancer, asthma, allergies, or any other breathing complications. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), is released from common house hold items like refrigerators, air conditioners, deodorants, and insect repellant which is slowly damaging the atmosphere and depleting the ozone layer leading to global warming.

Waste products released into bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, or oceans has deeply affected the marine life. Industries are not the only source of polluting these areas, humans are a huge participator as well. Humans pollute water by garbage, ashes, or any household items. You will find that in some rural areas people will bathe, cook and clean in the same water, making the quality even worse. Water pollution can indirectly pollute soil by runoff and leaching ground water.

Noise pollution includes the noise of aircrafts, cars, buses, trucks, loud speakers, industry noise, and are all extremely harmful to the environment. Motor vehicles are responsible for almost all of the unwanted noise worldwide.

Soil pollution leads to damaging farms and the crops grown on them. Acid rain, polluted water, fertilizers and many more are the cause of this. Chemical are released by spill or underground storage take leakage which release heavy contaminants.

I feel that environmental pollution is escalating very quickly and changes aren’t being made to help. Everyone is used to their everyday lifestyle and people aren’t realizing the harm they are actually doing. Businesses only care about money and not many seem to care about how badly they are polluting the air. I can only see it getting worse in the future and eventually it will catch up to us.

http://www.tropical-rainforest-animals.com/Environmental-Pollution.html

http://www.uccee.org/Environmental_Pollution.html

Cancer

Lindsay Pasquale

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Cancer

Cancer is a huge topic of research and discussion in today’s world. Cancer is the process of when the body’s cells begin to divide without stopping and spread into surrounding tissues. The human body is made up of trillions of cells and cancer is capable of starting anywhere. When cancer begins to develop, cells become more abnormal, old or damaged cells survive when they should die, and new cells form when they are not supposed to. The extra cells divide without stopping and could form growths, also known as tumors. There are many cancers that form solid tumors, but cancers of blood such as leukemia’s, generally do not create solid tumors. Cancerous tumors can spread into or invade nearby tissues. The tumors grow and some cells break off and travel to different places in the body.

Cancer is a genetic disease that is caused by changes in genes that control the way our cells function, including how they grow and divide. Genetic changes that cause cancer can be passed down through generations. It can also occur in someone lifetime by certain exposures. Some factors that cause cancer include exposure to, chemicals in tobacco smoke, or radiation such as ultraviolet rays from the sun. The three main types of genetic changes that lead to cancer are proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and DNA repair genes. These can be known as the “drivers” of cancer.

Metastasis is the process by which cancer cells spread to other parts of the body, and metastatic is when cancer spreads from where it first started in the body by traveling through the lymph system. Metastatic cells generally look the same as the original cancer cell under a microscope. Treatment isn’t always guaranteed to save a life, but it can prolong the lives of some people. The goal of treatment for metastatic cancer is to control the growth or to relieve symptoms caused by the cancer. This tumor can cause severe damage to a person’s body and affect how it functions.

The three stage process of carcinogenesis consist of Initiation, Promotion and Progression stages. The first step is Initiation, which involves damage to the genome. It can be caused by damaged DNA, or damages to chromosomes. The driver of this step is oxidative stress, but other types of damaging events are capable of occurring. The second stage Promotion, is a long process that starts with one damaged cell that has a growth advantage. The two key aspects to this stage is that it is a stage of cellular growth, and of progressive genomic damage to these multiplying cells, making them unstable. It is driven by chronic inflammation, which contributes to the growth of a tumor. The last stage, Progression, is characterized by karyotypic instability and malignant growth. Molecular targets during this process include; proto-oncogenes, cellular oncogenes, and tumor suppressor genes. Many of these genetic changes have been identified in the developing process of colon cancer. The genetic material of the tumor is more fragile and prone to addition mutations. 

https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer

https://dralanjeans.wordpress.com/2011/05/17/the-three-stages-of-carcinogensis-part-2-promotion/

http://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/diseases-and-conditions/pathology/carcinogenesis

Lead

Lindsay Pasquale

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Lead Paint

Lead is a highly toxic metal that could potential cause a range of health problems. Lead is natural occurring and comes from recycled materials such as car batteries. There are a variety of materials that use lead; gasoline, tank liners, pesticide’s, plastics, batteries, x-ray shielding, pipes, fishing sinkers, cable covers, brass, bronze and many more. Its widely used because of the low cost, low melting point, corrosion resistance, waterproof nature and malleability.

Growing up you always heard of the danger of lead in older homes. It was mostly found in the windowsills, or flaked onto the ground. It became a danger to young children because they would tend to get it in their mouths and it would become a risk for their health. But it’s not only found in old homes, it can be in all parts of the environment such as the air, soil, or water. Exposure can come from human activities like the use of fossil fuels, types of industrial facilities, lead base paint in homes, or the use of leaded gasoline. Lead compounds can be found in many products found in our homes such as paint, ceramics, plumbing materials and pipes, gasoline, batteries, ammunition, and cosmetics. Lead can enter the environment by industrial sources or from past and current uses. EPA states that natural levels of lead in soil range between 50 and 400 parts per million (ppm). Levels have increased in the past due to mining, smelting, and refining activities. When lead is released from these sources, it travels far along before it sets into the ground. Federal and state regulatory standards have helped decrease the levels of lead in the air, drinking water, soil, consumer products, food, and occupational settings.

Children are particularly at risk, their bodies tend to absorb more lead than adults do and their brain and nervous systems are more susceptible to the damaging effects from it. What do children like to do the most? Put things in their mouths, from toys, to other objects they find or their own hands. They are not only exposed by ingestion but it can also be airborne, lead based paint and deteriorate into the air and they could breathe it in, or renovations in older buildings and homes. Adults can be exposed just as easy, but eating and drinking from dishes that contain lead.

Children six years old or younger are most likely to experience the harmful effects of lead. It can cause behavior and learning problems, lower IQ, slowed growth, hearing problems, and anemia. There are ways for people to lower their chances of getting exposed to lead. You can take simple steps like keeping your home clean and well maintained, inspect and maintain all painted surfaces, wash children’s hands and their toys.

There are a lot of children toys here in the United States that contain exceeding levels of lead. Even though we have regulations and standards, other countries do not. Toys that come from China or India for example can be harmful. One common toy you see in stores that have been tested for high levels of lead are the shiny, metallic, fake jewelry you see little girls wear. I found this shocking, considering of how hazardous lead is to humans.

https://www.epa.gov/lead/learn-about-lead

http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/healthy_homes/healthyhomes/lead

 https://web.stanford.edu/dept/EHS/prod/general/asbestoslead/leadfactsheet.html

Radon

Lindsay Pasquale

 Blog

Radon

Radon is a gas that has no color, odor, or taste, which makes it very dangerous and hard to identify. It comes from the natural radioactive breakdown of uranium in the ground. Small amounts of radon in found outdoors but the two main sources are indoors and in drinking water.

Radon is a natural occurring radioactive gas that can cause cancer. It can be found in different ways such as drinking water and indoor air. If a person is exposed to radon in drinking water they have an increased risk of getting cancer sometime in their lifetime, especially lung cancer. Radon gas can dissolve an eventually make its way into ground water, such as wells. People are exposed by showering in the contaminated water, washing dishes, drinking it, or cooking with it. Radon gets in indoor air by the soil underneath homes, which happens to be the biggest source. Radon in indoors presents a greater risk of lung cancer than in drinking water. As uranium breaks down, radon gas forms and seeps into the house and can build up to high levels. It doesn’t matter what kind of building it is, it can be anything from a house, school, store, or restaurant.

This is a major health concern because of the effects on a person’s body. Radon gas decays into radioactive particles that can then be trapped in a person’s lungs when they breathe it in. As the particles break down further, they release into small bursts of energy. This then will damage someone’s lung tissue and increase the chances of getting lung cancer at some point in their lifetime. Not everyone exposed to high levels of radon will develop lung cancer, but people who smoke have a greater chance. According to EPA, radon in air is the second leading cause of lung cancer, there are about 20,000 deaths a year in the U.S by breathing radon indoors. I personally do not know anyone who has died of lung cancer from radon, I find this statistic shocking because of that. I would think that this is something I would see on the news more often.

If someone’s source of drinking water comes from a river or lake, also known as surface water, then most radon that could possibly be in that water is released into the air before reaching their water supplier at home. People who get their water from underground like a well that pumps water from an aquifer are more at risk, but it is not guaranteed. EPA has set standards on community water, levels of radon cannot exceed higher than 4,000 pCi/L, which contributes about 0.4 pCi/L of radon to the air of a home. There are programs to help control the levels of radon and it’s called Multimedia Mitigation Programs. The program encourages people in the public to fix radon in indoor problems and build homes that keep it from entering in. States that choose not to participate indoor air programs cannot exceed levels higher than 300 

https://archive.epa.gov/water/archive/web/html/basicinformation-2.html#What is radon?

http://www.radon.com/radon/radon_facts.html

Epigenetics

Lindsay Pasquale

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Epigenetics

What is epigenetics? Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression, also known as active versus inactive genes, that does not involve changes to underlying DNA sequence, which can affect how cells read the genes. DNA sequence is a change in phenotype without a change in genotype. Each person has their own unique genetic code that makes up who they are. Epigenetic change can be influenced by factors including, age, the environment, and disease state. It can be a regular and natural occurrence. Epigenetics has been around for a while, over a decade.

Epigenetics is important because it gives our body the ability to influence which genes will be expressed, depending on our immediate environment. Genes can be passed down generation to generation, the changes we make today can have an effect on the future generations. This relates to when someone goes to the doctor and they ask if there is any past history of cancer. If the answer is yes, then the person should be more cautious and have checkup frequently through time. Thankfully, so far cancer does not run through my family, so the doctor isn’t as concerned that it is in my genes. On the other hand, a friend of mine has a long history of breast cancer in her family and she gets checked quite frequently. Its common of people to think that our DNA determines just our physical appearance, but it can also determine how we function as an organism, which include our health and awareness to disease.

Today, there is some level of epigenetic mechanisms that relate to a wide variety of illnesses, behaviors, and other health indicators, which include cancers of all types, cognitive dysfunction, and respiratory, cardiovascular, reproductive, autoimmune, and neurobehavioral illnesses. Known epigenetic processes include heavy metals, pesticides, diesel exhaust, tobacco smoke, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, hormones, radioactivity, viruses, bacteria, and other basic nutrients. Epigenetic processes are natural and essential to many organism function, but if they do occur improperly, it can result in a major adverse health and behavioral effect. Most research on epigenetic inherence has been done on mice.

The Guardian explains epigenetics and our experiences. For example, Bisophenol A (BPA), is an additive in some plastics that have been linked to other diseases and cancer. It has been removed from consumer products in some countries. It has been exerting through a number of mechanisms including epigenetic modification. Poor health as a child growing up can affect DNA patters, and complications can follow you throughout life.

During an epigenetic process, one effect is imprinting. Imprinting is the condition where one of the two alleles of a typical gene pair is silenced by an epigenetic process such as methylation. According to NCBI, imprinting was first identified in 1910, in corn and first confirmed in mammals.

Epigenetics will continue to grow as research findings expand. Researchers use many different sources to keep moving forward in their studies. Genetics can be a very broad subject and quite complex.

https://www.theguardian.com/science/occams-corner/2014/apr/25/epigenetics-beginners-guide-to-everything

http://www.irunfar.com/2013/10/epigenetics-how-our-lifestyle-can-impact-our-genes.html

http://www.whatisepigenetics.com/fundamentals/

What is the Ames Test?

Lindsay Pasquale

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What is the Ames Test?

We use chemicals every day in our lives, whether its food, cosmetics, household products or medicine, or the air we breathe, and it’s important to know if they are harming us, that’s what the Ames test is for. The Ames test uses Salmonella bacteria to test whether a chemical is a mutagen. Even though the salmonella bacteria are already mutated, the test determines if the chemical can mutate the mutation back to normal.

The Ames test is widely used by the pharmaceutical industry to test drugs before using them in clinical trials. If the Ames test shows that a drug is mutagenic, then it is usually rejected for further development such as testing on animals or used therapeutically in humans. The Food and Drug Administration requires companies to complete the Ames test before marketing their item, usually most drugs or cosmetics.

A few common materials needed to complete this test include; sterile filter paper disks, agar plate, tubes to hold the substance in, and a flame for sterilization. It’s important to follow directions carefully and have temperature set at what they are supposed to be.

The Ames test can also determine if the substance tested is a carcinogen, which is to cause cancer. In the process of this test the bacteria forms colonies which are spread throughout the disk. The scattered colonies close to the margin of the disk represent spontaneous revertants. A revertant is a mutant that has reverted to its previous genotype or the original phenotype by means of a suppressor mutation. Many chemicals are not mutagenic or carcinogenic in themselves, but they form into mutagens or carcinogens as they are metabolized by the body. Anything that survives is a mutation, and the more of those that you get, the worse your test substance was. The result of that is because the mutation occurs while the DNA was being repaired, the test compound either caused damage or caused it to ruin the replication process.

The Ames test is traditionally used for as a proxy for carcinogenic or mutagenic potential. Its not a good resource for general toxicity, because there is a good amount of toxic compounds that don’t work by damaging DNA.

In Japan, Safrole, a colorless or slightly yellow liquid typically extracted from a fruit in a form of oil, was being used as a flavoring agent added to root beer but now banned. Through the years a lot of everyday food items or products with certain chemicals have now been banned, once research has grown and regulations have changed.

Humans and animals are surrounded by all different types of chemical substances, occurring both naturally and as well as synthetic. In my opinion I think the Ames test is a better way of testing rather than on animals. I think animal testing is extremely cruel and heartbreaking, especially after seeing how it is done and the effects it has on the animals after. If a substance or chemical is being tested by the Ames test, then I don’t see a need for other people to test the same substance on an animal to receive the same results. 

http://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/divisions-diagnostics-and-procedures/medicine/ames-test

http://medicine.jrank.org/pages/1887/Ames-Test.html

http://www.biology-pages.info/A/AmesTest.html

Dermal Absorption

Lindsay Pasquale

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Dermal Absorption

 Dermal absorption describes the transportation of chemicals from the outer surface of the skin both into the skin and into the systematic circulation according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Exposure of chemicals can occur from occupational, environmental, or consumer, which then can lead to diseases, disorders or death. The skin can absorb chemicals without the worker even knowing. Skin absorption occurs in the process of diffusion, where molecules spread from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

 Contact dermatitis is one of the most common types of occupational illness, with an estimates annual costs exceeding $1 billion as stated by CDC. Four causes Occupation Skin Disease (OSD) include mechanical trauma, biological agents, chemical agents, and physical agents. Chemical agents are the main cause of occupational skin diseases and disorders. The agents are divided into two different types; primary irritants and sensitizers. Primary irritants act directly on the skin, while sensitizers may not cause immediate skin reaction. A person may be exposed through direct contact with contaminated surface, deposition of aerosols, or splashes. Physical agents include extreme temperature either hot or cold, and radiation such as UV or solar radiation. Mechanical trauma would be friction, pressure, abrasions, cuts or bruises. Lastly, biological agents include microorganisms, parasites, plants and animal materials.  

 CDC estimated that more than 13 million workers in the United States are potentially exposed to chemicals that can be absorbed through the skin. The skin is the largest organ of the body and protects us from microbes and the elements. It is also very important because it helps regulate body temperature. The skin has three layers; the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.

 The rate of penetration is related to the lipophilicity of the chemical. Lipophilic is the tending to combine with or capable of dissolving lipids. The more lipophilic a chemical, the greater its rate of penetration. Lipophilicity and hydrophilicity refer to the solubility of something in water or lipids. On the other hand, lipophilic substances tend to be non-polar, and hydrophilic substances tend to be polar.

 Not everything people touch is absorbed into their skin and bodies. Skin penetration represents the amount of a chemical that exists between the stratum corneum and the stratum basale. During the process the body does not yet absorb the chemical, and it doesn’t affect the body systems. Skin absorption occurs when the chemical breaks the skin barrier to reach the bloodstream. It can go two different routes, the chemical can leave the person through bodily fluids, or build up, also known as bioaccumulation.

 Different areas of your body absorb at a different rate of speed. A person’s scalp is the most absorbing area of the body. I personally use multiple hair products and dye my hair quite frequently. I never thought about whether it could be harmful to my body. When I get my hair done, the smell of the dye is incredibly strong and even leave a burning sensation while it sits and processes. It makes me wonder what I’m really absorbing in my scalp.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/skin/ 

http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/ehc/ehc235.pdf?ua=1
http://www.who.int/ipcs/features/2006/ehc235/en/

Tylenol Toxicity

Lindsay Pasquale

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Tylenol Toxicity

 A very commonly known over the counter medicine Tylenol, which is also known as Acetaminophen, can cause life threatening illness. This medication is used to treat pain and to lower fever, it is proven to be safe and effective. Using excessive amounts of acetaminophen can lead to toxicity, which can be accidental or purposely.

 The recommended maximum dose is three grams in 24 hours. Tylenol overdose can cause extreme damage to the liver, and is now the second most common cause of liver failure requiring a transplant according to Medscape. Symptoms of toxicity do not begin to show until 24-48 hours after intake of Tylenol. After 24 hours of ingestion you may feel nauseated or vomit, poor apatite, abdominal pain and confusion, as the hours go on the symptoms get worse. If the liver is already damaged by alcohol use, infection, or any other illness, a person may be more susceptible to damage by Tylenol. For that, anyone with liver damage needs to be extra cautious with the dose they take and even talk with their doctor before taking the medication. A person should contact poison control, a doctor, or medical services if they suspect that something is wrong, the earlier you treat this the better the outcome. To help diagnose the problem the doctor will use the patient’s history, physical examination, and laboratory test. To determine the patient’s history, the doctor will attempt to find out the amount of acetaminophen taken, and having access to the medication bottle could help too. The physical aspect is looking for signs and symptoms of toxicity. Laboratory test include a blood level of acetaminophen will be taken to determine the toxic dose. There is a possibility that the doctor will ask for more than one blood test, and also test for other drugs.

 Acetaminophen is found in many over the counter medications and prescription drugs. A few popular ones include; Alka-Seltzer Plus, Benadryl, Excedrin, Midrin, Sudafed, Theraflu, Dayquil, and Vicodin. With that being said, Tylenol is most definitely not the only medication that can be toxic.

 It is common for people to take more Tylenol than the recommended amount. Such as people who play sports, they might take an excessive amount before a game to feel less pain during or afterwards. Even people who take pain medication quite often or daily will start to slowly increase their dose making them at risk. There are times when people take Tylenol when intoxicated to decrease the chance of a hang over the next morning. The FDA currently recommends that anyone taking medications that contain acetaminophen should not drink alcoholic beverages.

 I have always been aware of overdosing, but this is my first time learning about Tylenol toxicity. I personally know people who take Tylenol regularly, almost like it’s their daily medication and I knew this couldn’t be good for them. I think if more people were educated on this subject then they might take a step back and realize the dangers they are putting their selves in.

http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/820200-overview
http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/tylenol-acetaminophen-poisoning#2-4